Analysis of Cold in the earth&quot Essay

The death of a loved one is sometimes traumatizing and shocking and it indeed takes time to enable us to heal, especially if the victim of death was a soul mate. In the poem ‘Cold In The Earth’, Emily Bronte addresses the aspect of death and love. The persona has lost the love of her life and is describing her never ending love for him despite the obvious separation between them. The eight quatrain poem is dominated by the permanence of death and the changes that are brought about by its occurrence. Cold In The Earth being a reference to the dead and buried. The repetition that is used in the poem, â€Å"Far, far† creates emphasis on the distance between the two lovers. The persona addresses him as â€Å"Only Love† in capital letters showing the respect and significance that he was in her life. The rhetorical questions that are asked bring out the personas uncertainty of his absence and devastation by his death as these are questions that generally cannot be answered. The poet was known to have used paracosm in her writing. Angora, a place that she mentions in the second stanza is perhaps a fantasy world that she created as an act to make herself feel better. Her thoughts were like a bird. They no longer fly. They land on the grave where they rested their wings. There is very intense language and imagery used at this point of the poem. Persona is saying that her thoughts always land at the grave. Birds are free and fly wherever they please but they choose to land at the grave. The grave of the man she will always love no matter how far apart the two lovers are. She refers to the deceased man as a noble heart showing us that this was indeed someone who was very precious to her. The love of her life has been gone for fifteen years by the third stanza. She has mourned and suffered immensely since his death. The brown hills being a metaphor to describe her perhaps immediately after the death as being alone and finished completely. Thus her never ending thoughts to commit suicide and end her life which she thought was pointless without her love. The hills have now faded away and look like they do in spring. Beautiful, colorful and alive. This shows that time indeed changes things but she will, despite the immense changes, never forget him. She remains faithful to him. The persona begins to ask for forgiveness. She feels that she has forgotten him due to the other never ending demands of her life. However, she assures him that although these demands can sometimes come in the way of her thoughts of him, they will never make her forget him. However far he is, she will always love and remember him. No other person has ever been so significant and important to her. Whether day or night, â€Å"No other Sun,† â€Å"No other Star†, He was a blessing to her. He is a blessing like no other. Every thought she had was of him. The fifth stanza is a constant reminder of her consistent love for him. It is a declaration that nothing in the universe can overcome her love for him. But the persona continues with a completely different perspective than that from the beginning of the poem. She accepts that life must go on with time. It does not necessarily have to be an ecstatic joyful life, but instead one where she has not given up all hope. The last stanzas are a final declaration of how she feels about the death, her love for him and the intense changes that she has gone through over time. She has grown out of the thoughts of suicide she had had before and realized that it was his death and not hers. She must wait for her turn and quickly refuses the thoughts of her dying. She realizes that this was not her grave. Oxymoron is used in the final stanza. ‘Rapture and pain,’ ‘divinest anguish’ being two entirely feelings, the purpose is perhaps a description to show that the excellence of time and the misery of it have finally come together. Her anguish could only be taken away by divine power. We are able to see love, loss, sadness, time and a declaration that life must go on. The nostalgic mood brought about by the persona deeply yearning for something she cannot have, her lover.

Effective Management Essay

An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. Power tactics are used to translate power bases into specific action, and there are a number of tactics that could be used in various situations. As a manager trying to influence your employees, what tactics would you personally be most likely to use? Why? It is often necessary to have political influence to enable organizational members to achieve their goals, especially if these goals involve some degree of change or innovation. Network is defined by Richard L.  Daft as, â€Å"a system that links together people and departments within or among an organizations for the purpose of sharing information resources. † But, a more common and more subtle form of political behavior involves networking. Networking is when an individual establishes good relations with key organization members and/or key people outside the organization in order to accomplish one’s goals. Something as seemingly trivial as the arrangement of furniture in an office can affect perceptions of another person’s power. One vivid example comes from John Ehrlichman’s book Witness to Power. Ehrlichman described his first visit to J. Edgar Hoover’s office at the Department of Justice. The legendary director of the FBI had long been one of the most powerful men in Washington, DC, and as Ehrlichman’s impressions reveal, Hoover used every opportunity to reinforce that image. Ehrlichman was first led through double doors into a room replete with plaques, citations, trophies, medals, and certificates jamming every wall. He was then led through a second similarly decorated room into a third trophy room, and finally to a large but bare desk backed by several flags and still no J. Edgar Hoover. The guide opened a door behind the desk, and Ehrlichman went into a smaller office, which Hoover dominated from an impressive chair and desk that stood on a dais about six inches high. Erhlichman was instructed to take a seat on a lower couch, and Hoover peered down on Ehrlichman from his own loftier and intimidating place.

Alternative Energy Sources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Alternative Energy Sources - Essay Example 74-75). In the result, there has been significant increment in researches related to the advancements of alternative energy sources and their impact on different aspects of human life (Simon, pp. 19-22). In specific, it is observation that until now, researchers (EIA, pp. 11-15) have focused primarily on the impact of alternative sources on business environment or global economies. However, the proposed research will go into a micro perspective while emphasizing on the impact of one of the alternative sources on the lives of average American people, and the effectiveness of such source in terms of its prices as compared to existing available sources. From this aspect, the proposed research will focus on the following research statement: Studies have shown that fossil fuels are playing a leading role in fulfilling majority of the energy’s requirements on global level. In specific, it fulfills more than seventy percent of the world’s energy demand (Ahmed & Anderson, pp. 240). However, analysis (Solarbuzz, 2009) has indicated that alternative energy sources are now heading toward competing with the fossil fuels in the form of solar, hydropower, nuclear, hydrogen fuel, ethanol, etc (World Bank, pp. 1-5). One of the major factors of increment in the demand of alternative energy sources is rapid reduction in fossil fuels. For instance, countries are now putting efforts to use solar energy sources to reduce the expensive costs related to the usage of fossil fuels, especially, oil that is an expensive energy source, as compared to the solar energy sources. In the United States, the government is currently depending on fossil fuels to fulfill more than eighty-five percent of its demand of energy; however, alternative energy sources are contributing to only ten percent of the requirement, and solar energy only five percent (SEA, 2007). Thus, it has now become very imperative to

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example Summary of the Article Carr in his article offers an interesting look on the recent growth of online courses. He alleges that with the increased growth of online automation and analyzing algorithms, the MOOCs have become quite effective (36). The author meticulously describes the transitions that have taken place from the traditional means in which classes were undertaken to the new concept of the MOOCs. Additionally, he talks in length about ways in which the computers have helped in customizing the students’ learning experience. However, he points out to some of the challenges that are facing the MOOCs, alleging that, â€Å"of the 160,000 people who enrolled in Norvig and Thrun’s AI class, only about 14 percent ended up completing it† (Carr 40). In that case, the high dropout reveals the challenges that emanates from keeping online students motivated and attentive. One of the major implications that the author fails to address in regard to the increase of techn ology and MOOCs is the effect that the lack of professors would have on education and the field of research. If the technology ends up pushing the professors out of the classrooms, then it would be necessary for the author to focus on telling readers where that places the state of research. Nevertheless, he clearly explains on the reason why most people prefer online classes to classroom college education, asserting that people are dissatisfied with college education because it is time consuming and expensive. He confirms, â€Å"the average price tag for a bachelor’s degree has shot up to more than $ 100,000† (Carr, 34). Another reason behind the rise of MOOCs that is well argued out is that despite the rise in the cost of higher education, its quality has dropped. Generally, the pros and cons of MOOCs have been well argued and Carr looks as to be spot on in his scrutiny of the future of the universities. Rhetoric Analysis In Carr’s article, he uses a descriptiv e tone to appeal to readers in addressing the issue of technology and its pros and cons. Through his descriptions, he manages to paint a picture of slowly diminishing universities, owing to the rise of MOOCs. For instance, he creates imagery of a population that is slowly moving towards online classes, following the high expenses and low quality education. On the same note, he uses contrast to create a tone of disapproval among few people who still think that online classes tend to pose more challenges. For instance, he asserts, â€Å"but not everyone is enthusiastic. The online classes, some educators fear, will at best prove a distraction to college administrators†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Carr 34). Carr commences the article with historical facts, describing how technology has advanced over the years and has had an impact on higher education. This technique helps in establishing the tone of the article as one that is formal; hence, drawing the reader’s interest because of the credib ility that comes with historical facts. Additionally, the author uses comparative and contrasting techniques to give an overview on what education was like before and how it has changed with the revolution of technology. For example, the author compares correspondence courses to traditional on campus lessons, arguing that they were both beneficial to students though

Marketing strategies of Apple Inc Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing strategies of Apple Inc - Term Paper Example It's products and services include Macintosh (Mac) computers, iPhone, iPad, iPod, Apple TV, Xserve, a portfolio of consumer and professional software applications, the Mac OS X and iOS operating systems, third-party digital content and applications through the iTunes Store, and a range of accessory, service and support offerings† (Corporate Information, 2011, p. 1) With the rich legacy and tradition that has revolutionized computer technology of the 20th century, Apple Inc. has been revered by contemporary organizations as an icon of global technology. In this regard, the current research aims to proffer pertinent information that highlights the marketing strategies employed and implemented by Apple Inc. in its journey towards exemplary performance and financial success. Products Apple’s products are categorized into personal computers (PCs), to operating systems (OS), peripherals and the latest non-PC product lines (iPod, iPhone, among others). A quick view of the offic ial website’s product images and information classify their offers as: iPad and iPhone; Mac; iPod and iTunes; and iCloud; with specified retail stores for these products (Apple Inc., 2011). The slump in the technology industry, particularly in terms of trends in personal computers in the 2000s shifted Apple’s focus in the digital technology market that enabled them to recover from financial distress. The innovative strategy of designing iPhone was another instrumental investment that paid off for Apple. Having capitalized on the increasing proliferation of mobile phones, the technology of uniting the features offered in iPod to mobile technology attained the object to reinventing the phone to what emerged as the iPhone. As advertised in their website: â€Å"iPhone 4 features a durable glass design, the remarkably high-resolution Retina display, FaceTime video calling, a 5-megapixel camera with HDR capability, and HD video recording. It’s the biggest thing to ha ppen to iPhone since iPhone† (Apple Inc., 2011). Marketing Strategies The success of Apple Inc. has been attributed to their expertise and competitive advantage of knowing their products and scanning for opportunities in their external environment. As revealed by Vertygo Team (2011), â€Å"Apple has been so successful in these last years thanks to the fresh, imaginative way to think and do its business: a winning combination of exceptional products, great style and design, great strategy, innovative marketing, sleek and enticing communications† (par. 1). Apart from these, Apple’s competitive advantages could be summed as follows: (1) possesses strong corporate position and image as a pioneer manufacturer and marketing of easy-to-use computer for a wide range of customers; (2) positioned itself as an established manufacturer of high quality products: (3) exhibited exemplary competence in both hardware and software applications; (4) invested considerably and strate gically in research and development paving the way for the discovery of new product designs deemed to be more versatile than competitors and creation of innovative applications; (5) possesses the ability to employ strong leaders with vast professional experiences; (6) offered products packaged in strategic designs to focus on the products’

A business process method for virtualized enterprises Research Paper

A business process method for virtualized enterprises - Research Paper Example Though the future is commonly tagged as unpredictable, business management gives room to forecasting especially when it is based on principles and empirical theories. Expecting business process improvement to remain competitive or to be even improved is therefore nothing much to ask from businesses in today’s fast changing business environment. Several definitions have been given to the term ‘business process’. According to the Business Process Incubator (2011), business process is â€Å"a co-ordinated set of actions that produce a business result, either within a single organization or across several.† Search CIO (2011) also has it that â€Å"A business process is an activity or set of activities that will accomplish a specific organizational goal.† To implement these set of activities that lead to the realization of organizational goals however, there are a number of methods and supporting frameworks to follow. In this paper, we discuss a business process method and supporting framework, including concepts for business-to-business interaction and human resources: to obtain business process environment with rapid, flexible, straightforward, efficient, and precise operations. Undoubtedly, a similar framework will be widely implemented in the near future, and methods such as this one will be widely used. This future implementation will be directed towards achieving a more advanced system and form of business and organizational structure. As the world progresses and advances by the day, business process methods and frameworks that are instituted must meet the growing needs of businesses and society as a whole. Future implementation would therefore be a huge step for the humanity, similar to transition from postal mail to email, utilization of computer-aided design, and use of professional and general purpose social networks. Just as in a swift of human imagination these innovations came to take over the norm that previously exist ed, it is expected that future implementations would solve more complex problems of humanity and businesses. Virtual profiles system and electronic contract negotiation and formation To allow for a more comprehensive discussion of this session, the session shall begin with the definition and explanation of some the salient terms to be used. Virtual profiles system is more related to virtual systems management that is used in most corporations, organizations and businesses. Virtual systems management basically has to do with the allocation and distribution of resources. Expanding the explanation further, Tech Target (2007) explain that â€Å"virtual systems management (VSM), is the process of remotely managing the allocation and use of resources in conventional networks as well as in virtual area networks (VANs), virtual private networks (VPNs), virtual network computing (VNC) and virtual servers.† Virtual prolife systems therefore work best with all kinds of organizations and businesses as far as they have technological facilities for implementation. Electronic contract has greater linkage with virtual profile systems in the sense that electronic contracts helps in the achievement of the management and allocation of resources; especially data on the institution in question. To this effect, Morciniec et al (2002) explain that â€Å"an electronic contract is its reification in software that can be instantiated as a set of obligations that are fulfilled between parties, refused or waived as future events occur.† This explanation was given in relation to the meaning of an ordinary contract, which was explained by the writers to be â€Å"a statement of intent that regulates behavior among organizations and individuals†

The role of cellular pathology in the investigation of lymphoma Essay

The role of cellular pathology in the investigation of lymphoma - Essay Example A cytopathologist may perform a Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) in the case of smaller infected sites such as lymph nodes only. Following the diagnosis of the presence of the illness, the tissue samples are screened and examined under a microscope. To successfully treat lymphoma, it is vital to know what type of lymphoma is taking over the patients system. There are two types of lymphoma; in Hodgkin’s lymphoma, the lymphoma tumors invade the lymphatic system, overall weakening the sufferer. Hodgkin’s lymphoma is singled out by an even spread of infected cells (lymphocytes) over the body’s lymph nodes. It spreads from lymph node to the next, forming a gross and maybe a fatal cycle, rather similar to that of the plague, which is painful and unbearable for the victim. Hodgkin’s lymphoma is diagnosed by the appearance of Reed-Sternberg cells (different giant cells originally derived from B lymphocytes), seen under light microscopy of biopsies or NFAC’s. The other type of lymphoma is Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. It causes swelling of the infected lymph nodes, and its onset maybe aggressive (fast), or indolent (slow/gradual). Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma may occur at any age, and cause obsolete swellings about the body. Collection of fluid due to the diseased lymphatic system causes most of the swellings (with the exception Cellular/ Cyto pathology (basically means study of cells) is the branch of medicine which deals with the diagnosis of diseases. This practice was founded/ invented by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. As the name suggests, cells are primarily used to diagnose illnesses. The cells are obtained via biopsies or Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology – involves the sucking of cells from the diseased tissue by using a very fine needle/ syringe. Smears may also be used (such as the Pap smear – to diagnose cervical diseases), but only in complicated cases. These methods of extracting body cells for

The Monopoly Of Wonks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Monopoly Of Wonks - Essay Example This will enable the firm to fund high cost capital investment spending. Successful research may be used to improve on products and lower cost in the long-term. The government will have a chance to regulate different varieties of products at the same time to prevent exploitation of the consumers by the firm. This will save the government spending on check-ups. The government will also be able to tax the company easily. The government gets much tax revenue in the monopoly companies than in monopolistic competition. In the monopolistic market are free to enter and leave at any time since there are no legal barriers. Lack of restrictions demolishes government effort to collect tax revenue from all the stakeholders. Consumers are likely to buy chips in lower prices since Wonks will be enjoying economics of scale, its production cost will lower transferring this to consumers by charging less cost per unit of potatoes sold. Wonks Company will be a price-maker, since it makes its own pricing and output decisions. In the end, the price of a product will be determined by its cost function, demand, its objectives and certain government regulations. The main objective, which leads Wonks to merge as one firm, is to maximize profit. i.e. T.C. It is expected that in long run, Wonks chips company will increase its output since there are no other players in the market. If it does so, it has to lowers the price. As a result, marginal revenue will be below its price. Perloff, Jeffrey M. (2004). If marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost, i.e. M.R>MC, the firm will increase profit by increasing output. If marginal revenue is less than marginal cost (M.R

Peer Pressure Essay Example for Free

Peer Pressure Essay According to Took (2007), making decisions on your own is hard enough, but when other people get involved and try to pressure you one way or another it can be even harder. People who are your age, like your classmates, are called peers. When they try to influence how you act, to get you to do something, its called Peer Pressure. Its something everyone has to deal with even adults. Peer Pressure is one thing that all teens have in common. You cant escape it; it is everywhere. No matter how popular you are, how well liked you may be or how together you feel, sooner or later you will have to face peer pressure. Whether it is pressure to conform to a group norm or pressure to act a certain way. People are influenced by peers because they want to fit in, be like peers they admire, do what others are doing, or have what others have. Mueller states that, â€Å"The ugly reality is that Peer Pressure reaches its greatest intensity at just the age when kids tend to be most insensitive and cruel. † Every Peer group has its own identity and which greatly depends on the personality of its members. Feller (1995), has stated that despite the differences between groups, the group members always try and influence each other. They have some conformity to common set of rules and norms, which a member must not break without being forced to leave the group. Also Peer Pressure can be either positive or negative. Pressure exerted in a positive way can help motivate you on to be the best you can be. Keeping up with the schoolwork or being more articipative in class are the traits of positive Peer Pressure exerted on you by the group. Negative Peer Pressure can make you do things you don’t want to do, like having early sex or taking drugs. It can make you feel depressed and de-motivated. â€Å"Responding to Peer Pressure is part of human nature — but some people are more likely to give in, and others are better able to resist and stand their ground. People who are low on confidence and those who tend to follow rather than lead could be more likely to seek their peers pproval by giving in to a risky challenge or suggestion. People who are unsure of themselves, new to the group, or inexperienced with peer pressure may also be more likely to give in,† (Lyness, 2006). Also Feller (1995), in his study, states that Peer Pressure can be very subtle-you may not realize its happening. Some groups use Peer Pressure as a tool to gain power over members, whereas other don’t intend to exert the pressure, they just do that naturally. According to Hardcastle, there are certain personality traits or risk factors that make you ore prone to give in to pressure. Some kids give in to Peer Pressure because of low self esteem and lack of confidence, whereas others give in to pressure because they want to be liked, to fit in, or because they feel that others would make fun of them if they don’t go along with the group. Messier, states that, â€Å"The only pressure Im under is the pressure Ive put on myself. † The idea that everyones doing it may influence some kids to leave their better judgment, or their common sense, behind.

Ballet or football Essay Example for Free

Ballet or football Essay Ballet and football are both difficult sports to master; however, someone once said, â€Å"If ballet were any easier, they’d call it football. † What makes for a good sport? Every sport has rules and regulations that one must follow in order to play. The sport requires specific skills such as strength, coordination, and speed. A good sport has a certain level of safety to keep the participants safe and requires a lot of teamwork so that every is playing together. I personally think ballet is the more technical of the two. Ballet is much more complex than football. Every sport requires you to follow certain guidelines. In football, the player can’t grab the opponent in certain ways or a yellow flag will be thrown on the ground to indicate holding or some penalty that no one has even heard of before. Football has rules that the team must obey. On the other hand, ballet is less restricted than football. They are no rules in ballet. Ballet is a form of art; there are no limitations on art. Ballet is not about winning or following any rules; it is about expression through movement. Although there is more freedom in ballet, there is a lot of technique required. You must hold your arms a certain way so that they do not droop, and you must always remember the turn out of your thigh when you tendu. Ballet may not have rules, but there are still plenty of little details to remember. Strength is a major component of almost any sport. In football, the quarterback relies on two hundred and fifty pound linemen to block so that he can get the ball in the end zone. The defensive linemen have to use their upper body strength to hold the opposing team and keep them from getting to the ball. They use their lower body to stand strong to hold their ground like grabbing a bull by the horns. Ballet requires a totally different kind of strength than football does. Dancers use their upper bodies to hold their arms above their heads in a perfect beach ball shaped fifth position while still keeping their shoulders down for thirty minutes at a time. They use their lower body strength to push out of a plie to a pique turn and have to maintain the core strength, so they do not wobble too much. Football does not require much coordination. It wasn’t a sport that was meant to be pretty. It was meant to be rough and rugged for the manliest of men. While watching the game, half of the time you don’t even know if they meant to fall down or if they just happen to be clumsy enough to fall over their own two feet. It tends to be one big dog pile play after play. In ballet, coordination is everything. Dancers must make sure they are in the exact spot that they are supposed to be at and be in sync with every other dancer on the stage. Pierce Brosnan said, Love is a lot like dancing; you just surrender to the music (Willcutt). Every beat must be a white flag waving and show complete dedication to the music. Dancers have to be coordinated enough to do long elaborate pieces of choreography while still maintaining a smile on their faces. Ballerinas must make every single movement appear effortless. In football, speed is very important when a wide receiver is trying to run the ball down the field. It is his speed that helps him to pass by the other players in lightning speed so fast that they do not even know what hit them. I know what you’re thinking†¦. why would you need speed in ballet? However, not one ballerina would ever dream of doing a slow fouette, a move in which you whip your leg around to spin. It would be a disaster. Fouettes are meant to be fast to get your body around faster to make your pirouettes prettier. Speed and extreme focus is what makes a ballerina capable of turning. Although countless football players get hurt yearly, they have equipment that is specifically designed to keep them from serious injury. Football players risk injury every time they step foot out on that field, but if they fall down, their equipment is there to take the majority of the impact. Safety is important in any sport you play; that is why in football the players wear pads and helmets for protection. However, dancers must maintain a flawless posture to keep from injuring themselves. There is no special equipment for a dancer to use to keep themselves to safe. A dancer must rely on stretching to warm up his or her muscles. Dancers have to take every good care of their ankles and knees because they are constantly at risk of injury. If a dancer twists her ankle on stage during a performance, she doesn’t call in the second string. She sucks it up, puts on a brave face, and keeps on dancing. Teamwork is important in football because if you don’t read your guards, then you are liable to screw the entire play up. The player must know what the play is and what exact role everyone is going to play. The players huddle up before each play to strategize against the other team. They break off and have to rely on their teammates to do what is required of them. Vince Lombardi said, â€Å"People who work together will win, whether it be against complex football defenses, or the problems of modern society† (Family of Vince). When you think of the word team, you don’t exactly picture a group of ballerinas dancing on a shiny hardwood stage. You stereotypically think of the Pittsburg Steelers or some other NFL team. However, in ballet, every dancer is part of a team. You have to be so in tune with one another that as soon as the music begins, everyone begins to dance as if a bunch of puppets moving on strings. If one â€Å"teammate† loses rhythm then the whole performance suffers. Dancers rehearse with their fellow dancers for weeks and weeks to perfect their dance so that it will be flawless. In the end, ballet and football require a great amount of passion and determination. If you do not have the heart, you will not be willing to put in the blood, sweat, and tears that it takes to pursue the sport whole-heartedly. Although football may be a little easier, both sports demand a lot of hard work. Works Cited Family of Vince Lombardi c/o Luminary Group LLC. â€Å"Famous Quotes by Vince Lombardi. † Vince Lombardi. 2010. Web. October 4, 2012. Willcutt, Sara. â€Å"Dance Quotes 3. † Ascending Star Dance- An Internet Dance Magazine. 2007. Web. October 4, 2012.

FDI Trends in India and China: An Analysis

FDI Trends in India and China: An Analysis Chapter 1: Aim and Objectives All nations need a vision for future which stirs the thoughts and motivates different segments of society to a greater effort and thus inclines them to work toward the common cause that is economy growth of the individual nation. The market oriented policies normally have exclusionary impact which needs to be prevented through articulate response of the policy makers. India is the third-largest economy in the world in PPP (purchasing power parity) terms foreign direct investments (FDI), But China is currently a favourite nation and is more successful in attracting FDI over India Ballabh (2008). Hence, this thesis strives to analyse the past trend of FDI in India and China, its types, its critical analysis with regards to host country and investing firm, important factors of globalisation and foreign direct investments (FDI) strategies to be adopted, Finally, Its comparison with Chinas FDI and empirical evidences would help us cover aim of our thesis which is among India and China, Wh y is China more successful in attracting FDI than India and is favoured over India? Therefore this paper has been divided in seven sections. It starts with brief introduction to FDI and its types in section 1. Section 2 covers background information and literature review that gives us a picture of the FDI policies in the past, Its trends and impact on MNCs in context to India and China, FDIs role on host economy and MNCs, , Its critical analysis based on Morans model, and finally investment strategies adopted by MNCs where to invest and what to invest. This would give us greater insight into the chosen topic by discussion of various forms of FDI, its impact on MNCs, on host economy and presenting an argument on discussion. Section three; presents the discussion on methodology to be used for the data collection and analysis. Section four is our data analysis and discussion section that is further divided into two sections, first half covers Chinas FDI spread-its Sectoral regional trends, the figures from the data sorted to analyse the growth in FDI over years and in different sectors, FDI distributions and opportunity sector that is playing increasingly important role by embracing FDI growth. The other half covers Indias FDI Spread-Sectoral and Country wise distribution. Again we use graphs and charts to analyse the trend. Comparative analysis of China with India would act as an indispensable step in structuring a consensus on a broad national development strategy to attract foreign investors that encompasses the roles and responsibilities of different agents in the economy, like Central, the private corporate sector, State and local government. Therefore finally presenting a logical explanation why China is a favourable nation over India and is highly successful in attracting FDI, hence the same is to be discussed in section five. Section Six is about building a feasible policy framework toward attracting FDI for the interest of the MNCs and host economy with reference to Chinas successful strategy in attracting FDI and summary of the literature followed by the concluding remarks are presented in the last section. The Concept of FDI is now an integral part of every nations economic prospect but the term remains vague to many, despite the thoughtful effects on the host economy and MNCs, despite the extensive studies on FDI, there has been little illumination forthcoming and it remains a contentious topic. The research findings will throw up a range of interesting possibilities in two countries, critical issues and crucial decision-points for government and private bodies to decide upon investment for future action in the favoured country. Therefore, the paper would explores the uneven beginnings of FDI in two countries, examine and present many important theoretical and empirical evidences on FDI and its impact on economy and MNCs, and would find reasons why China is more successful in FDI over India develop a feasible policy framework towards FDI in particular sector in India or China and making most out of it. Chapter 2: Introduction Foreign direct investment has multiple effects on the investing firm and on the economy of a host country. FDI influences the production, employment, income, prices, exports, imports, balance of payments, economic growth, and general welfare of the receiving economy Maniam (1998). Hence this section covers definition and types of Foreign Direct Investment, FDIs role been so far based on background information, discussion of resources and finally the theoretical aspect of why and where firms decide to invest abroad for benefits with special reference to India and China alongside host countrys motive to attract FDI. Definition of FDI Bergman (2006) defined FDI as a direct or portfolio investment. A direct investment is an acquisition or construction of physical capital by a firm from one source country into another (host) country. The FDI is an investment that involves a long-term relationship and control by a resident entity of one country, in a firm located in a country other than that of the investing firm. There is more involved in the direct investment than only money capital, for instance, managerial or technical guidance. FDI is generally defined as resident firms with at least 10% of foreign participation (UNCTAD, 2002). Types of FDI MNCs have various options to enter into a foreign market. FDIs Different types have different levels of control and risks. For example, Green field investment is when a firm establishes a subsidiary in a new country and starts its own production. In this type of investment a new plant is constructed rather than the purchase of an existing plant or firm. For this reason, there is large risk and has high set up costs because the foreign firm most likely does not have enough legislation knowledge, nor it has an existing distribution network and neither a local management skills. But still, the foreign firm has more control. On the contrary, Brown field investment is FDI that involves the purchase of an existing plant or firm, rather than building of a new plant. Joint venture is an equity and management partnership between the foreign firm and a local firm in the host market. Most host countries prefer the formation of joint ventures, as a way to build international co-operation, and to secure technology transfer (Samli Hill, 1998). In This type of investment the foreign partners contribute toward technology or products, the financial resources, and at the same time the local partner provides the manpower, skills and knowledge required for managing a firm in the host country (Bergman 2006). On UNCTADs website we can have a comprehensive understanding of it and its types. It defines FDI as an investment that involves a long-term relationship and reflects a permanent interest of a resident entity in one economy (direct investor) in an entity resident in an economy other than of the investor. The direct i nvestors idea is to put forth a significant degree of influence on the management of the enterprise resident in the other economy. FDI covers both the opening and subsequent transaction between the two entities and among affiliated enterprises, both incorporated and unincorporated. FDI may be undertaken by individuals, as well as business entities. It further is classified as follows: FDI Stock: it is the value of the share (For associate and subsidiary enterprises,) of their capital and reserves (including the retained profits) attributable to the parent enterprise (this is equal to the total assets minus total liabilities), plus the net indebtedness of associate or subsidiary to the parent firm. For branches, it is value of fixed assets and the value of current assets and investments, excluding amounts due from parent, less liabilities to third parties. Reinvested Earnings: The part of an affiliates earnings accruing to the foreign investor that is reinvested in that enterprise. FDI Flows: FDI flows (For associate and subsidiary enterprises) consists of the net sales of shares and loans (including non-cash acquisitions made against equipment, manufacturing rights, etc.) to the parent company plus the parent firms share of the affiliates reinvested earnings plus total net intra-company loans (short- and long-term) provided by the parent company. And, for branches, FDI flows consist of the increase in reinvested earnings plus the net increase in funds received from the foreign direct investor. Equity Capital: The foreign direct investors net purchase of the shares and loans of an enterprise in a country other than its own. Other Capital: Short- or long-term loans from parent firms to affiliate enterprises or vice versa. Also included are trade credits, bonds and money market instruments, financial leases and financial derivatives. Chapter 3: Background Information and Literature Review History of FDI in India Indias foreign trade and investment regime has been identified in two different phases- Pre-1991 reforms phase and the post-1991 phase. Pre-1991 reforms phase that stretched over to four decades is worth reviewing in some detail as although the regime was marked by extensive regulation of trade and investment, it did not shun foreign enterprise participation in the economy and the nature of the regulatory framework was mostly complex and cumbersome. This has been extensively analysed by Kidron (1965) Kumar (1994). The specification of sectors in which both foreign financial and technical participation were allowed, those in which only technical collaboration was permitted, and those in which neither technical and nor financial participation was allowed, reflects the desire to restrict foreign ownership and control to sectors of the economy in which its contribution was deemed to be essential. A preference to technical collaboration agreements instead of foreign equity ownership refl ects the desire to promote the twin objectives of preserving freedom from foreign control over operations and simultaneously gaining access to foreign technology and know-how. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1973 under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was considered a hostile act. The FERA required foreign firms to dilute their equity holdings to less than 40% or export a substantial share of their total output. This resulted to closure of renowned MNCs like IBM and Coca Cola to shut their operations in India.1967-79, the number of collaborations agreements per year reached an all-time low of 242. The Mid- 1980s saw a considerable though not a radical relaxation of the dirigiste trade and investment regime, with a relatively benign attitude towards foreign enterprise participation. The major crucial change during this period was a significant change in the pattern of foreign investment in India away from plantations, minerals and petroleum toward the manufacturing sector. By the end of decade of eighties manufacturing accounted for nearly 85% out of total stock of FDI of about Rupees 28 billion. Inflows of private capital remained meagre in the 1980s: they averaged less than $0.2 billion per year from 1985 to 1990 (Kapur Athreye 1999). In the year 1991, India too liberalised its highly regulated FDI regime, in place for more than three decades. Arguably Balasubramanyam (2004) in his book stated that, it took an economic crisis for India to liberalise its trade and FDI regime rather than a fundamental change in attitude towards the role of FDI in development process. Nonetheless, the 1991 reforms marked a major break from the earlier dirigiste regime with its regulation of the spheres of foreign enterprise participation on its mode of operation. And the policy framework was opaque with the implementation of policy based on bureaucratic consideration of each case on its merits. Hence the 1991 reforms were to change all this: The abolition of the industrial licensing system, controls over foreign trade and foreign investment were considerable relaxed, including the removal of ceilings on equity ownership by foreign firms. The reforms did result in increased inflows of FDI during the decades of the nineties as it consi derable relaxed the dirigiste regime that prevailed for more than four decades (Balasubramanyam Mahambare 2004). Hence with the liberalisation of the economy, fresh foreign investment was invited in a range of industries. Inflows to India rose steadily through the 1990s, exceeding $6 billion in 1996-97. The fresh inflows were primarily as portfolio capital in the early years (that is, diversified equity holdings not associated with managerial control), but increasingly, they have come as foreign direct investment (equity investment associated with managerial control). This was further supported by historically low interest rates in the US that encouraged global investment funds to diversify their portfolios by investing in emerging markets. International flows of direct investment, which had averaged $142 bn per year over 1985-90, more than doubled to $350 billion in 1996, with the developing countries receiving $130 billion (Kapur Athreye 1999). 1996-1998, the period of the coalition government has been an imperative period in our study; Singh (2005) classified this as a period when government has shown willingness to understand FDI by placing policies that would result in an increase in FDI and further liberalization for the common cause. There was an increased understanding on the role of FDI in all sectors. Industries still lead the reforms whereby automatic approval of FDI was increased up to 74% by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in nine categories of industries, including electricity generation and transmission, non-conventional energy generation and distribution, construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, ports, harbours, runways, waterways, tunnels, pipelines, industrial and power plants, pipeline transport , water transport, cold storage and warehousing for agricultural products, mining services including silver and precious stones, manufacture of iron ore pellets, pig iron, semi-finished iron and steel and man ufacture of navigational, meteorological, geophysical, oceanographic, hydrological and ultrasonic sounding instruments and items based on solar energy (indiabudget.nic.in). January 1997, Government announced the first ever guidelines for FDI speedy approval in areas that are not covered under automatic approval. Above trends illustrates the earlier point of the government recognizing and carrying forth of the previous work done by the Rao government. While the advantage of FDI did not reach the mindset of the common man but government seemed to show possibilities of overall development through FDI. For example when Indian industry registered a modest growth rate of 7.1% in 1996-97, which was much lower than the 12.1% in 1995-96, there was research carried out which revealed this was partially attributable to the mining and electricity generation sectors which recorded very low growth rates of 0.7 % and 3.9 % respectively. Hence, the policy was immediately rectified and re-enforced by expanding the list of industries eligible for foreign direct equity investment under the automatic approval route by RBI in 1997-1998 (indiabudget.nic.in). 2004-05, embraced FDI for being an integral part of national development strategies. Its global popularity along with positive output in augmenting of domestic capital, productivity and employment; has made it an essential tool for initiating economic growth for nations. During this phase, India evolved as one of the most favoured destination for FDI in Asia. It has displaced US as the second-most favoured destination for FDI in the world after China. According to an AT Kearneys FDI Confidence Index, India attracted more than three times foreign investment at US$ 7.96 bn during the first half of 2005-06 fiscal, as against US$ 2.38 bn during the corresponding period of 2004-05. FDI in India has contributed effectively to the overall growth of the economy in the recent times. FDI inflow has an impact on Indias transfer of new technology and innovative ideas, improving infrastructure, a competitive business environment (Indianground.com). Ballabh (2008) in his article mentioned about the Balance of payments (BOP) since independence, Indias BOP on its current account has been negative. Since liberalisation in the 1990s (precipitated by a BOP crisis), Indias exports have been consistently rising, covering 80.3% of its imports in 2002-03, up from 66.2% in 1990-91. Although India is still a net importer, since 1996-97, its overall BOP (including the capital account balance), has been positive, largely on account of increased FDI and deposits from NRIs; until this time, the overall balance was only occasionally positive on account of external assistance and commercial borrowings. As a result, Indias foreign currency reserves stood at $141bn in 2005-06. Indias recently liberalised FDI policy (2005) allows up to a 100% FDI stake inventures. Industrial policy reforms have significantly reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and foreign dir ect investment FDI. History of FDI in China FDIs main source in China from 1950s had been Soviet Union. However, it was after 1978 that China began to open up itself to the rest of the world for FDI inflows. From the start of 1978 China witnessed its exit from its self-dependent strategies since Maos era with the country announcing a remarkable program to reform its economic system by opening itself up to the outside world. From the beginning of 1978, FDI in China became desirable and began to add in the development of the Chinese economy. In general, the development of FDI in China can be divided into following five stages. Experiment Stage (1979 1983) China started from an experimental approach, which they called crossing the river by feeling the stones under the water. FDI was permitted into China in a step-by-step manner. One key action of the first step was the establishment of four Special Economic Zones (SEZs), namely Shen Zhen, Shan Tou, Zhu Hai and Xia Men, in July 1981. These SEZs were chosen for the absorption and utilization of foreign Investment. These provided foreign investors with preferential treatment for their Businesses. As Chinas window to the world, these zones succeeded in attracting FDI. Meanwhile, China was putting up effort to complete its legislative system. First to come was, the Equity Joint Venture Law (the Law of Peoples Republic of China on Joint Ventures Using Chinese and Foreign Investment) that was enacted in July 1979. The legislation validated the existence of FDI in China and guaranteed the right and benefits of foreign investors. Second important policy taken at this stage included Regulation f or the Implementation of the Law of the Peoples Republic of china on Chinese -foreign Equity Joint Ventures (1983). Growth Stage (1984 1991) Until 1984 there were flaws in Chinas handling FDI. Chinas restraints on FDI outside the SEZs remained rigid. Laws and regulations limited foreign ownership. FDI projects often encountered a long approval process even though they provided sufficient materials and explanation. This was simplified gradually between 1983 and 1985. Following is the list of new laws and regulations at this stage year on year basis. Wholly Owned Subsidiaries (WOS) Law (1986) Provision for the FDI Encouragement (1986) Constitutional Status of Foreign invested Enterprises in Chinese Civil Law (1986) Adoption of Interim provision on guiding FDI (1987) Delegation on approval of selected FDI projects to more local governments (1988) Laws of cooperative joint ventures (1988) Revision of equity joint venture law (1990) Rules for implementation of WOS law (1990) Income tax law and its rules for implementation (1991) 1984 witnessed two historic activities. First was when Deng Xiaoping remarked that China needed to open wider instead of checking upon the opening process (Zheng, 1984). Second was when Chinese government announced the decision on reform of the economic structure, and called for the building of a socialist commodity economy by assigning a larger role to the market in the domestic economic. Besides SEZs, Chinese government took a further step to give FDI access to other parts of the country. Fourteen coastal cities were announced to be opened to the outside world. They are Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao, Lianyungang, Nantong, Shanghai, Ningbo, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang and Beihai. The local government from these cities could approve FDI projects with capital investment up to certain level. For example, Shanghai could approve all FDI projects under 30 million USD (Yuan, 2006). They were also given the right to spend foreign exchange yielded by local FDI for t heir own growth. The approval procedures for FDI projects were eased. The Law of Peoples Republic of China on Wholly Foreign-owned Enterprises (WFOEs) of 1986, was laid to protect the profits and interest of foreign investors. In addition to this series of other laws and regulations further relaxed Chinas restriction in promoting FDI with measures for enterprise autonomy, profit remittances, labour recruitment and land use. In December 1990, the central government promulgated Detailed Rules and Regulations for the Implementation of the Peoples Republic of China Concerning Joint Ventures with Chinese and Foreign Investment. The regulation aimed to encourage joint ventures that adopted sophisticated technology or equipments, saved energy and raw materials and upgraded products. Peak Stage (1992 1993) This stage has witnessed the rise of Shanghai as Chinas economic hub. The Chinese government wanted to develop Shanghai into an international hub for finance, economy and trade. Their intention was to carry out the experiment of new policies and apply successful practices within the rest of Shanghai and across the country. Shanghais location in Southeast China drew attention of Chinese governments in shifting emphasis to the area to avoid overly concentration of FDI. Hi-tech enterprises, established manufacturers and financial companies were encouraged to set up their China operation at Pudong with various preferential treatments from central and local government. With the implementation of a new framework for further opening up the economy, the Chinese government showed great effort to encourage FDI. A number of new Sectors were also opened up to foreign investors, including banking and insurance, accounting and information consultancy, wholesaling and retailing at the same time, go vernmental procedures were simplified in terms of FDI administration. The year of 1992 witnessed the remarkable growth of FDI in China. In the same year, the Chinese government announced its intention to adopt the strategy of socialist market economy and improve the economic framework for standard market Operations. Following are the series of laws and regulations related to market operations were passed during 1992 and 1993, which included: Adoption of Trade Union Law (1992) Company Law (1993) Provision regulations of value-added tax, consumption tax, business tax and Enterprise income tax (1993) Adjustment Stage (1994 2000) After 1994, the growth rate of FDI in China went down to a steady level from the relatively high rate in past two years, which indicated that a new stage had arrived. 1995s Provisional Guidelines for Foreign Investment Projects provided preferential treatment to various enterprises in various industries. The directory of the Guidelines categorized all the FDI projects into four types: encouraged, restricted, prohibited and permitted (Yuan, 2006). The projects in infrastructure or underdeveloped agriculture and with advanced technology or manufacturing under-supplied new equipment to satisfy market demand fell into the encouraged category. Those whose production exceeded domestic demand and those who engaged in the exploration of rare and valuable resources were put into restricted. The prohibited category included projects that would risk national security or public interest, or those endangering military facilities.. The last one is classified as permitted. Annual utilization of FDI reached to its peak in 1997 and 1998 but then moved downward in the following two years. Post-WTO Stage (2001 present) November 11, 2001, saw Chinas admission as an official member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), after a 15-year negotiation. It was after accession to WTO, China started to fulfil its obligation such as basic principles of non-discrimination, pro-trade and pro-competition. This historic event had significant Impact on FDI inflows to China. This gave incentives to more export-oriented FDI. Chinas export market becomes larger and more predictable. Also, Chinas domestic market attracts FDI in industries where there is large market potential. Usually, these industries used to be dominated by relatively inefficient state-owned enterprises, such as telecommunication, banking and insurance. Foreign investors, especially large multinational companies (MNCs), have now growing interest in these industries. Becoming a WTO member, China had to restructure its legal framework. This, in consequence, improves Chinas business environment and helps attract more foreign investment. Yuan (2006), in his literature has revealed, throughout the years, China has steadily reduced its industrial tariffs in a wide range of sectors. Foreign firms are granted direct trading rights for the first time, which means they can import and export themselves without going through a Chinese state-owned trading firm. Clearly, Chinas acquiring WTO membership boosts investors confidence the Chinese economy and its market and thus attracts more FDI inflows. FDIs: Critical Analysis FDIs in other countries are now been continuously studied. There are numerous factors and studies motivating this type of investment for the benefit of source and host countries. There has been a substantial change in policies and attitudes towards FDI on the part of most developing countries in recent years. Disbelief and suspicion of FDIs in the past now appears to have given place to a new found faith in its ability to encourage growth and development for the investing firm and host countries. This perception is due to number of factors: steep fall in alternative sources of finance such as bank credit in the wake of the debt crisis, the self-evident success of Asian countries like India and China, and growth in Knowledge and understanding of the nature and operations of multinational enterprises (Balasubramanyam Mahambare, 2004). In regards to stability aspect of FDI toward the growth of investing firm and host countries, empirical studies have found FDI to be more stable than ot her forms of capital (UNCTAD, 1998, World Investment Report, Geneva). Examination of a variety of capital flows in developing countries during East Asian financial crisis revealed FDI was more stable than other capital flows past studies analysis that FDI is the result of certain competitive advantage. Paul et al. (2002), revealed in their book; many developing countries like India favour FDI over other capital inflows and there is a substantial benefit that such investment benefit the host country and thereby attracting more foreign firms for investment as the benefits in this form of investment is both ways. Knowing the benefits of FDI in host countries would make the legislation system clear and simple and would enable foreign firm for investment based on long-term profits. Swamy (2000) in his book has done calculation the rate of return of FDI in India. His results revealed the rate of return on FDI in India higher than the rate of return obtained on global outward FDI. To quote from his studies, FDI Enterprises were able to earn relatively higher profit rates in India, despite higher level of taxation and tariffs etc. Thus the low level of FDI Inflows until the end of 1980s seems to have been caused restrictive policy environment rather than profitability considerations. Pradhan (2000) has scrutinised the various aspects of FDI from source as well as Host countries point of view, with a focus on the risk from the firms perspective and on the strategies to attract FDI to be adopted by host countries. His study thereby revealed that the higher rate of return for an MNC comes with FDI is, in fact, the result of existing market opportunities combined with the host countries policies towards FDI. Thereby, Indicating strong signals of overall growth of Host countries (developing) in conjunction with FDI and higher rate of return for MNCs. Lensink Morrissey (2001), literature suggests that FDI by MNCs is one of the major channels in providing LDCs (least developed countries) with access to advanced technologies and generating high revenue for MNCs involved in investment for them. The underlying theory differs illustrates the benefits of FDI for MNCs and host countries. The imitation channel is based on the view that domestic firms may become more Productive by imitating the more advanced technologies or managerial practices of Foreign firms for foreign firms and at the same time adding to GDP for their own country. Also, the competition channel emphasises that the entrance of more foreign firms from abroad intensifies competition in the domestic market, thereby encouraging domestic firms to become more efficient and productive by upgrading their technology base. The linkages channel stresses that foreign firms may relocate new technology to Domestic firms through transactions, and would develop buyer-seller relationship. This would necessities Training from the foreign firm to the domestic firm. Hence the training channel needs to be enforced on new technologies. This can only be adopted when the labour force feels comfortable to work with their foreign partner and when embraced works for the benefits of foreign firms as well. Beside these studies, in some of the literature the contribution of FDI to foreign firm and host countries economic growth has been debated quite extensively. Findings reveals that FDI has both benevolent and a dangerous impact. Empirical evidence that FDI generates positive spillovers for firms is mixed. Few studies have found positive spillover effects, few finds no effects and few even conclude that there are negative effects (see Aitken and Harrison, 1999). The conventional argument is that an inflow of FDI positively contributes as; it brings technology, know-how and management techniques. It integrate the operation of local firms into the networks of foreign investors, it helps to place local production on international markets and integrates the national economies into worldwide production and distribution systems. Hence, concluding that FDI can contribute positively and increase the export activity of the host economy (Adam 2002). On the other hand, some of the recent literat ure points to the role of FDI as a channel of international technology transfer. It can deliver rather controversial effects. Foreign firms can out-compete local producers, reduce local production capacities close down research and development units, break up traditional subcontractor relationships and substitute them with imported goods, and repatriate profits thus deteriorating the balance of payments position of the host economy. Sometimes, could lead to absolute shut-down of foreign firms when opposed by local people of host countries. For example Coca-Cola Company had shut down bottling plant in India during a community-led campaign that demanded the closure of the Coca-Cola bottling plant because of indiscriminate pollution as well as illegal occupatio

solar energy Essay -- essays research papers

Solar Energy All life on Earth depends on energy from the sun. Solar energy is the source of energy for photosynthesis. It provides the warmth necessary for plants and animals to survive. Scientists have found a way to use God’s natural light towards the advantage of our daily lives. The affects of this idea revolutionary, results of solar power could lead to a more modernized society and efficient economy. Solar energy is a term that usually means the direct use of sunlight to produce heat or electric power. Solar technology is improving rapidly. Someday, it may provide a clean and abundant source of power. Solar energy is a very useful resource. Today 80% of the energy we use comes from fossil fuels and about 1% comes from solar energy. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable, that means that they are used up faster than they could be replaced. Also fossil fuels limited and cause pollution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recently, there has been talk about creating a whole livable society in which all essential sources of man-made energy, which is virtually pollution-free and affordable, seems impossible. Although such a concept seems like science fiction today, real efforts are underway to assure that by the late 21st century, what once seemed like a dream, will soon be reality. Cars will soon have no use for fuel and will be powered by solar energy. There are also plans to manufacture solar powered homes. By doing this families can cut electricity...

heroarms Henry’s Personal Code in A Farewell to Arms :: Farewell Arms Essays

Henry’s Personal Code in A Farewell to Arms    A Farewell to Arms, by Ernest Hemingway is a story of Love, war and one Man’s pursuit of finding his own personal code in order to make a separate peace. Fredrick Henry is an American who serves as a lieutenant in the Italian army to a group of ambulance drivers. Hemingway portrays Frederick as a lost man searching for order and value in his life. Catherine Barkley is an English volunteer nurse who serves in Italy. She is considered very experienced when it comes to love and loss since she has already been   confronted with the death of a loved one when her fiancà © was killed earlier in the war. Their love affair must survive the obstacles of World War. The background of war-torn Italy adds to the tragedy of the love story. The war affects the emotions and values of each character. The love between Catherine and Frederick must outlast long separations, life-threatening wartime situations, and the uncertainty of each other's whereabouts or condition. This novel is a beautif ul love story of two people who need each other in a period of upheaval. At the start of the novel, Frederick is given a vacation to leave the war for a period of time in order to relax. He befriends a priest because he admires the fact that the priest lives his life by a set of values that give him an orderly lifestyle. He is told by the priest to go to Abruzzi, there in the mountains he can relax and forget about the worries of war. But Fredrick is hardheaded and listens to his friends and decides to go to Naples, there he   drinks and travels from one house of prostitution to another and yet he is   discontent because his life is very unsettled. This vacation was his free ticket out of the war but Fredrick does not realize nor understand how bad this war is. He decides to return due to his pride and patriotism. A close friend of Fredrick, Rinaldi is also a Lt. In the army. Together they share stories and interests. Rinaldi is a strong man, one who understands what war is about. Through numerous attempts of lessons given to Fredrick, he still doesn’t understand. Rinaldi constantly calls Fredrick â€Å"baby† which is an accurate description of him. He is still a child and is not aware of the true meaning of war, love and life.

Sociology. Davis Moore Thesis Essay

Davis-Moore thesis Introduction            Davis-Moore thesis discusses and analyzes the social equality and inequality and explains why different people obtain different rewards for the jobs that they do (Macionis, 2009). The general topic of the thesis is social stratification, which according to Davis-Moore, is present in every society due to the reason that it has some consequential benefits for the operation and the growth of the society. According to Davis-Moore, more reward is given to people that hold positions in the society that are considered to have some functional importance, such as that of a medical doctor (Macionis, 2009). The result of the reward system in the society implies equality in opportunities while promoting inequality in terms of the outcome that people receive. Social stratification, according to Davis-Moore thesis, makes the society more productive as well as efficient.            The functional consequence of inequality for society helps in ensuring that the various roles that are considered to be important in the society are filled by the relevant and skilled people (Macionis, 2009). Talented people in the society are supplied with the necessary opportunities and motivation that enables them to undertake training that result in filling of the important roles in the society (Macionis, 2009). The important functions are performed by people who are most talented. The greatest rewards are also offered to the position that require a lot of training and are of importance in the maintenance of the order and system of the society (Macionis, 2009). For example, doctors train for many years and, therefore, are expected to receive higher perks due to the kind of role they play in the society.            Engineers and pilots also take a lot of time to train hence the notion that they should receive higher rewards for their jobs. Melvin Tumin criticized Davis-Moore’s thesis of social stratification by saying that there has been no demonstration of functional importance of the varying positions in the society (Macionis, 2009). Melvin also notes that such a demonstration has not been made. Reference Macionis, J. J. (2009). Sociology. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson Education. Source document

Operating Model Definition

l assist in the integration of processes throughout franchises 200 locations. The main location will have the ability to make changes to expectations or processes and make them available to all of the 200 locations from the main location without having to go to each location individually. This operating model will improve the structure and processes of the 200 franchise locations by making it possible to reach out to all of them at once whenever necessary changes are needed to be made. Each location will also have the ability of reporting to the central location any changes as well as request to make changes and send in any data that would prove the necessity of the proposed changes without needing to go to that individual location to address whatever issues at hand. Ralph’s Ribs is unlike any of the other sample organizations because it lacks an actual formal IT setup since all data is sent in from the 200 franchises as individual batch files. The chosen model would help in any of the four scenarios; however it would prove to be a vital asset for Ralph’s Ribs as it would help standardize all processes throughout the 200 franchises making it easier to manage the data coming in from the franchise locations. The chosen operating model would assist in saving time thus allowing the organization and its franchises to make additional advancements which would allow them to implement their sales and marketing strategies. When saved time is utilized it opens the door to unlimited opportunities, in this case Ralph’s Ribs main location would save an enormous amount of time if the individual reports from its 200 franchise locations were sent into a database that was setup to receive and sort the data from the franchise locations.

Background Knowledge Related To Past Research Education Essay

This subdivision provides background cognition related to past research undertaken with the purpose of better understanding the consequence of smaller category sizes on academic accomplishment in primary and secondary classs. After a brief overview of early surveies prior to the 1980s, the focal point will turn to the influential state-mandated experiments implemented at the oncoming of 1990s province and federal answerability plans. Constructing on the ascertained demands for future research, this reappraisal does non mean to turn to public policy inquiries such as the cost-effectiveness of little class-size plans. Alternatively, it focuses on the possible academic benefits of such plans as they are related to increasing academic accomplishment. Last, a theoretical theoretical account of the kineticss between category size and academic accomplishment will be suggested, taking into history variables such as student-factors ( e.g. , motive, pro-social behaviour, anti-social behaviour ) , teacher-factors ( e.g. , instructional patterns, pupil interactions ) , and contextual-factors ( e.g. , school organisation, scheduling, internal administration ) . Cardinal to the survey will be whether smaller categories every bit benefit all pupils. Prior to analyzing the relationship between category size and accomplishment, it is necessary to specify these footings. Specifying Class Size and Student Achievement Today, the concept of category size encompasses a broad assortment of instructional scenes runing from pupil one-on-one tutoring to internet online categories functioning several hundred pupils at one clip. Likewise, the construct of â€Å" little † and â€Å" smaller † category size evolved greatly in the class of the twentieth century. While category size denotes the mean figure of pupils entrusted in the attention of one instructor over the class of one twelvemonth, pupil-to-teacher ratio refers to the figure of pupils within a local educational authorization divided by the figure of certificated forces serving the pupil population employed by the organisation ( Achilles, n.d. ) . Teacher-student ratio denotes the same concept. Differences between pupil-teacher ratio and category sizes were found to be every bit big as 10 pupils. In a nutshell, given a student-teacher ratio of 17 pupils to one instructor in a given edifice, the existent schoolroom burden may be every bit big as 27 pupils for one instructor ( Achilles, Finn, & A ; Pate-Bain, 2002 ) . Yet, in malice of these differences, the literature related to instructional scenes has used mistakenly both constructs interchangeably. While existent category size may change during the twelvemonth or even during the same twenty-four hours, pupil-teacher ratio are normally smaller since they may include certificated forces non assigned to one schoolroom or assigned to smaller categories such as those typically required to serve particular need pupils. To paraphrase the above comment, although both concepts are extremely correlated, it is likely that student-teacher ratios will be well lower than the one calculated by the existent category size concept. In fact, it is merely at the schoolroom degree that both prosodies may be indistinguishable ( Achilles, n.d. ) , presuming that pupils are non pulled out during the twenty-four hours. This being said, student-to-staff ratios in public school steadily decreased from 35:1 in 1890, to 28:1 in 1940, and 20:1 in 1970 ( Hanushek & A ; Rivkin, 1997 ) . Hanushek comments that in the period 1950-94, the pupil-teacher ratio has dropped 35 % . Yet, accomplishment in mathematics, scientific discipline and reading as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress ( NAEP ) has remained systematically level over the last three decennaries of the twentieth century ( Hanushek, 1998 ; Johnson, 2002 ) . Although these figures suggests that take downing the student-teacher ratios does non interpret additions in academic accomplishment, the advocates of smaller category sizes point out at the altering nature of instruction. Indeed, the growing of specialised countries of direction such as particular instruction gives the semblance that category size have been reduced ( Achilles, et al. , 2002 ) by take downing the pupil-teacher ratio while category size itself remained co nsistent or even increased over the same period. Other research workers ( Biddle & A ; Berliner, 2002 ; Greenwald, Hedges, & A ; Laine, 1996 ) further contend that Hanushek ‘s decisions lack external cogency since the sample groups used in his surveies were little and non representative of the whole U.S. population. Furthermore, the usage of student-teacher ratios uncontrolled for other features to depict category supposedly hides confusing variables ( Biddle & A ; Berliner, 2002, 2003 ) . Similarly, research in the country of category size and academic accomplishment focused on progressively smaller sizes, comparing categories comprised of between 15 and 35 pupils. For case, while Rice ( 1902 ) compared the effectivity of categories runing from under 40 pupils, 40 to 49 pupils, and 50 pupils and over, ulterior surveies carried out in the 1980s focused on much smaller category sizes, typically of 15 to 22 pupils versus 23 to 35 pupils ( Molnar, et al. , 1999 ; Nye, Hedges, & A ; Konstantopoulos, 2000 ; Shapson, Wright, Eason, & A ; Fitzgerald, 1980 ) . In some surveies, such as the first meta-analysis on category size conducted by Glass and Smith ( 1979 ) and Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) , the research would besides include comparings of categories of 25 pupils or more with one-on-one tutoring ( category size of one ) . Research workers such as Slavin ( 1986 ) pointed out that such broad fluctuations between category sizes badly undermined the external cogency of such survei es. Since most of the educational policies involved category size decreases to smaller categories of a upper limit of 15 pupils and given that most of the surveies carried out since the late seventies included comparings of such categories, this reappraisal of literature will non describe surveies comparing the effectivity of one-on-one tutoring to whole category direction. The trouble of specifying the construct of little category size is further compounded by multiple methods of ciphering student-teachers ratios and the complexness of school maestro class agendas. Although research workers agree category size is a ratio affecting pupils and teachers, surveies have been inconsistent or even soundless as to how such ratios are obtained. In the large-scale Coleman Report ( 1966 ) , category size was obtained by spliting the pupil population within a edifice by the figure of module, including non-instructional staff such as librarian clerks who do non teach categories. Since the primary intent of the Coleman Report was to detect the impact of racial segregation on accomplishment in American school, category size was, ipso facto, aggregated to other steps of â€Å" school facilities/resources † and did non account satisfactorily for the impact of category sizes on accomplishment within the larger context of public instruction. Trusting on the availa ble informations, from big samples of convenience and questionnaires, the survey was unable to insulate the impact of category size and accomplishment. Furthermore, other factors such as non-assigned instruction staff, disengagement of pupils for differentiated direction, or even little group workshops taking topographic point at assorted times of the twenty-four hours besides introduce complications in ciphering student-teacher ratios. Class size in itself includes considerable fluctuations ( such as allotted clip, pupil features, instructional methods, class degrees, capable countries ) , which, if left vague, may do an underestimate of the true relationship with pupil accomplishment would otherwise suggest ( Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran, & A ; Willms, 2001a ) . Clearly category size and student-teacher ratios do non compare in that the latter does non account for the existent schooling context in which pupil are larning and there is no understanding among research workers on a standardised method of ciphering such ratios. In the concluding analysis, the research worker must be expressed when specifying his concepts. Adcock suggests a on the job definition of category size as â€Å" the entire figure of pupils enrolled on the last school twenty-four hours of the twelvemonth divided by the derived school figure of nucleus instructors employed on the last of the school twelvemonth of [ a given ] school † ( Adcock & A ; Winkler, 1999, April, p. 9 ) . Such constructed statistic of category size considers merely those instructors assigned to academic topics: English/language humanistic disciplines, societal science/history, mathematics and scientific discipline. The construct of academic accomplishment or academic public presentation in the present survey refers to the single norm- or criterion-referenced standardised steps administered largely at the province degree ( i.e. Iowa Test of Basic Skills [ ITBS ] , California Standards Test [ CST ] , National Assessment of Educational Progress [ NAEP ] or Stanford Achievement Test [ SAT ] , to call a few standardised trials normally used in the K-12 ) . Academic accomplishment differs from academic attainment in that information mensurating academic public presentation are collected at regular intervals for the intent of mensurating advancement. Academic attainment, on the other manus, denotes making educational ends or mileposts that enhance one ‘s social position, such as graduation from an educational establishment, or even traveling up the socio-economic ladder. Although most research will advert separate aggregated academic accomplishment consequences in one or more of the four nucleus topics ( mathematics, linguistic communication humanistic disciplines, societal surveies, and scientific discipline ) for the assorted groups of pupils being observed, some surveies, peculiarly meta-analyses such as Glass & A ; Smith ( 1979 ) , combined the achievement public presentation for deficiency of more specific informations. Although one could gestate other methods of mensurating schooling result, such as reliable appraisal, standardised testing is more readily available as a measuring. By and big, such quantifiable measurings are readily available and will be used extensively in the present survey normally reported. Historical Context of Class Size Research Equally early as the bend of the twentieth century, category size and its effects on academic accomplishment elicited the involvement of educational research workers. At that clip, the focal point was on simple instruction, and more meagerly on the secondary degree ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) . From 1900s to 1920s, surveies followed Rice ‘s ( 1902 ) footfalls ; nevertheless, these were shown to incorporate minimum experimental control ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) . By the early 1930s, most of the research attempts related to category size went hibernating until the involvement resurfaced in the sixtiess when pupil accomplishment was correlated with school resources ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) . Experimental and quasi-experimental research on the subject greatly expanded in the late seventies and early 80s, with the turning unease across the state that public instruction was neglecting childs. Two public studies sparked a renewed involvement in school reforms and category size research: A State at Risk ( Gardner, Larsen, Baker, & A ; Campbell, 1983 ) and the Coleman Report ( Coleman, et al. , 1966 ) . In the aftermath of the successful launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957, the domination of the United States was no longer taken for granted at place ; this crisis of assurance culminated twenty old ages subsequently with the publication of a State at Risk ( Gardner, et al. , 1983 ) indicating at the diminution of SAT tonss from 1960s to the 1980s and at the ensuing deficiency of international fight of the American educational system. At the province degree, boards of instruction closely monitored big plans of category size decrease launched statewide in Tennessee and Wisconsin ; similar actions commanding category size was seen as an easy authorization for public instruction entities to implement ( Addonizio & A ; Phelps, 2000 ) . Furthermore, sentiments in the sixtiess were divided as one wondered whether the expected addition in academic accomplishment realized through the execution of smaller category size would warrant the extra disbursement of public monies. The large-scale â€Å" province of instruction † research published by Coleman ( 1966 ) attributed differences in accomplishment among pupils to household environment, defined as the figure of books available in the place or the socio-economic position of the unit, and downplayed the function of schooling context, including category size, in pupil accomplishment. In a commissioned paper design to edify public policy in instruction, the Coleman Report ( 1966 ) , utilizing standardised trial tonss and questionnaires from instructors and principals, measured the academic accomplishment of more than 150,000 pupils in classs 1 to 12 and found category size to be a negligible factor in pupil accomplishment on standardised norm-referenced trials in verbal abilities and mathematics: â€Å" Some installations steps, such as the pupil/teacher ratio in direction, are non included [ in the study ] because they showed a consistent deficiency of relation to achievement among all groups under all conditions † ( Coleman, et al. , 1966, p. 312 ) . Ignoring the possible impact of category size on pupil accomplishment, Coleman concluded that the socio-economic background of the pupil, the societal composing of the pupil organic structure and the features of the environing community are cardinal factors to explicate differences in academic accomplishment among pupils. However, in the Coleman Report, category size was non clearly analyzed as a possible contributing factor ; alternatively category size was combined with other factors such as text edition and library handiness under the overall umbrella factor â€Å" school facilities/resources. † Again, it must be emphasized that, in the Coleman Report, category size was defined by spliting the pupil registration by the figure of school employees within a edifice, a possible beginning of mistake doing a hapless estimation of the true relationship between the category size and academic accomplishment. Much like in other econometric surveies carried out since ( Hanushek, 1998 ; Rivkin, Hanushek, & A ; Kain, 2005 ; Wossmann & A ; West, 2006 ) , teacher wages and other input variables used as a replacement for existent category size may dissemble confusing variables. Rather than concentrating on absolute accomplishment in a inactive manner, it would be of greater involvement to find: ( 1 ) the fringy additions obtained in little categories over clip through clip series analysis ; and, ( 2 ) whether pupils with different features respond to intervention in the same manner ( Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran, & A ; Willms, 2001b ) . Possibly, the most compelling expostulations to the decisions made in the Coleman Report stems from its analysis of instruction at a given point in clip. However, the same study brought into visible radiation other possible confusing factors in the relationship between category size and pupil accomplishment, such as the value of the resources allotted to the schools, the features of direction including teacher and category size, the features of the school ( such as civilization ) , and the features of the community. This argument over the effectivity of smaller categories illustrates the divergent and sometimes beliing involvements between authorities functionaries and the pupils ‘ households when trying to reply the inquiry of the economic value of instruction and the cost benefit of smaller category sizes ( Mitchell & A ; Mitchell, 2003 ) . Research Synthesiss In an attempt of developing a first comprehensive meta-analysis on the relationship between category size and pupil accomplishment, Glass and Smith ( 1979 ) retrieved published empirical category size surveies and thesiss since the bend of 1900s, happening over 300 experimental and quasi-experimental surveies incorporating useable quantitative informations. Concentrating on 77 experimental surveies depicting 725 mated comparisons/combinations of pupil category sizes loosely categorized in four types, less than 16 pupils, 17 to 23 pupils, 24 to 34 pupils, and over 35 pupils, Glass and Smith looked at the achievement trial consequences of about 900,000 pupils over a 70 twelvemonth span in a twelve states. Glass and Smith ( 1978, 1979 ) foremost approximated the relationship between category size and accomplishment by utilizing the theoretical account, based on standardised achievement mean differences between braces of smaller ( S ) and larger ( L ) categories divided by the within group standard divergence. Following, instead than making a matrix with rows and columns stand foring the category sizes and the intersecting cell the values of, Glass and Smith used the arrested development theoretical account: = I?0 + I?1S + I?2S2 + I?3S2 + I?3 ( L-S ) + I µ to aggregate the findings. Since construing the theoretical account in footings of class-size and achievement involves at least three or more dimensions, Glass and Smith imposed a consistence status on all ‘s to deduce a individual curve from the complex arrested development surface. Enforcing randomly the average z-score accomplishment of 0 to the class-size of 30, the concluding reading of the theoretical account was represe nted by a individual arrested development curve for accomplishment onto category size. When compared to larger categories of 40 pupils, smaller categories of 30, 20, 10 and 1 pupils showed standardised differential accomplishment effects of -.05, .05, .26, and.57, severally. Likewise, when compared to larger categories of 25 pupils, smaller categories of 20, 15, 10, 5, and 1 pupil showed standardised differential accomplishment effects of.04, .13, .26, .41, and.55, severally. Those consequences included achievement consequences in mathematics, linguistic communication humanistic disciplines, and scientific discipline. One-half of these arrested development analyses involved quasi-experimental or convenience assignment of pupils to either big or little groups. Translating these z-scores into percentile ranks, the additions in the 25 versus 20, 15, 10, 5, and 1 comparings are 4, 5, 10, 16, 21 percentile rank, severally. From the initial 725 mated comparings of pupil accomplishment in both smaller and larger groups, 435 ( 60 % ) comparings favored smaller category constellations by demoing an addition in academic accomplishment. Yet, this addition was non quantified. Achievement was defined either as combined standardised pupil consequences in one or more capable. When concentrating on 160 braces of categories of about 18 and 28 pupils, the meta-analysis suggested even more distinguishable differences in accomplishment: In 111 cases ( 69 % ) smaller categories demonstrated a higher degree of academic accomplishment over the larger categories. Again, this consequence was non quantified. Regressions analyses based logarithmic theoretical accounts favored smaller categories by about one ten percent of a standard divergence for the complete set of comparings. It is of import to observe that merely 109 of the 725 initial comparings involved random experimental designs in a sum of 14 surveies, 81 % of which found smaller category sizes led to increased academic accomplishment as measured by standardised trials or other steps, such as figure of publicity to the following class degree. Others types of category assignment reported in the 725 comparings included: ( 1 ) matched: 236 comparings ; ( 2 ) repeated steps: 18 ; and ( 3 ) uncontrolled: 362 comparings. The last type of methodological analysis involved quasi-experiments that finally weakens conclusive treatment related to the relationship between category size and academic accomplishment. Possibly for this ground, Glass ( 1982 ) further analyzed the consequences of the 14 random experimental surveies. Further separating accomplishment additions for fewer and greater than 100 hours of direction clip, an mean pupil taught in a category of 20 pupils would make a degree of accomplishment higher than that of 60 % of pupils taught in a category of 40 pupils. At the utmost point of comparing, a pupil instructed in a category of five pupils would surpass a pupil in a category of 40 pupils by 30 percentile ranks. This survey efficaciously demonstrated that pupils in smaller category achieve at a higher degree. Yet, even in the instance of experimental comparings, consequence sizes are limited unless the size of the little category beads below 20 pupils. Glass and Smith argue in favour of smaller category size. Two of import issues seem to weaken the statement that smaller categories are more effectual than larger 1s. First, the 109 comparings were really aggregated by the writers into about 30 comparings. In many cases, the same larger and smaller groups and their public presentations had been evaluated on the footing of different conditions, such as sum of direction or capable countries. In other instances, the capable countries measured were combined. Second, consequences reported reflect the public presentation of disparate sizes, such as category of 1 pupil vs. category of 30 pupils, or a category of 5 pupils vs. a category of 30 pupils. Education Research Services ( 1980 ) claims that the Glass and Smith meta-analysis overemphasizes the public presentation of highly little instructional scene, one to five pupils. Hedges and Stock ( 1983 ) proceeded to reanalyze the Glass meta-analysis and stated that, and gave proof to the determination that category sizes below 20s pupils are efficac iously more contributing to advancing academic accomplishment. Subsequently, this initial analysis by Glass ( 1979 ) was further expanded ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) to include the deductions for educational policy determinations. Although the literature tends to depict category sizes below nine pupils as tutoring scene, a context beyond the range of the present survey, it is notable to advert the meta-analysis carried out on category sizes of nine pupils or less ( Cohen, Kulik, & A ; Kulik, 1982 ) . At the bosom of the contention, we find the really construct of practical significance and matter-of-fact deductions of systemic alterations towards take downing category sizes. Smaller category sizes seem to be effectual. However, larger effects are noticed in category size of less than 20 pupils. In their meta-analysis of tutoring categories of 9 pupils or less, Cohen, et Al. ( 1982 ) measured consequence sizes based on 65 surveies. Their findings confirmed Glass greater consequence size s ( differences of agencies of both experimental and control groups divided by the standard divergence of the control group ) in favour of smaller category sizes. Interestingly, groups tutored by equals achieved a greater addition than those entrusted in the instruction of regular instructors. This once more intimations at the demand to foster place context variables. Clearly, category size entirely does non do greater academic accomplishment. Both Glass surveies confirmed the sentiment mostly spread in educational circles that little category sizes were more contributing to student larning. The part of this meta-analysis to the research country is treble: it established the benefit of category size below 20 pupils ; gave the drift for statewide experimental class-size decrease ; and, eventually emphasized the function of learning procedures, such as clip on undertaking, as implicit in grounds doing the positive impact of smaller category size on academic accomplishment. However, limited figure of experimental analyses retained by Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) caused cogency concerns: Slavin ( 1989 ) contended that, by restricting the meta-analysis to merely 14 experimental surveies, the Glass, et all decisions lost in external cogency and generalizability what was gained in internal cogency. Based on the scrutiny of Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) , it seems that the lone ample consequence was found when comparing 10-student categories vs. a 30 pupil categories and the greatest consequence of category size on pupil accomplishment is without a uncertainty one-on-one tutoring. However, the most common application of the construct of smaller category size would compare differences in accomplishment between groups of 14-20 pupils vs. 30 or more pupils in one category. Slavin ( 1989 ) introduced a best grounds synthesis, uniting the elements found in meta-analysis with narrative reappraisal. He selected eight random category assignment surveies comparing the consequences of standardised reading and mathematics trials in smaller and larger categories at the simple degree. Surveies had to compare larger categories to categories at least 30 % smaller with a student/teacher ratio non transcending 20:1. The selected surveies analyzed smaller category size plans of at least one twelvemonth in continuance, with either random assignment to alternate category sizes, or fiting stipulations. Effect sizes were based on the difference between the little category accomplishment mean ( experimental group ) and the larger category accomplishment mean ( command group ) divided by post-test standard divergence of the control group. This is the same definition of consequence size introduced by Glass and Smith. On norm, these surveies compared groups of 27 pupils to g roups of 15 pupils. Even though these eight surveies were well-controlled and documented surveies, the average consequence size observed was merely +.13 ( Slavin, 1989, p. 251 ) . Discussions about such little effects as measured by standardised trials in both mathematics and linguistic communication humanistic disciplines seem to indicate at the instructor instructional bringing staying consistent regardless of the category size. The type of interactions, such as expressed direct direction, between pupils and instructors had already been identified as an influential factors in the Coleman study ( 1966 ) . This observation was once more echoed by Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) as they note that category size is merely one variable impacting effectual direction. In the aftermath of a contention on appropriate usage of support for underachieving schools, the Educational Research Service ( ERS ) published a study ( Porwoll, 1978 ) on the province of the research on category size mentioning over 100 surveies which suggested little consequence sizes, most of which were correlational with some or small control of other variables such as teacher- , student- , and school-related contexts. Although this peculiar research was inconclusive, a subsequent Erbium survey carried out one decennary subsequently corroborated the findings of Glass and Smith ( Robinson & A ; Wittebols, 1986 ) and besides added an of import component to their treatments. Although smaller category sizes seem positively associated with an addition in academic accomplishment, smaller category sizes entirely do non ensue in increased pupil public presentation. Adding on to Glass ‘ meta-analysis and Slavin ‘s best grounds synthesis, Robinson used the related bunch attack to reexamine K-12 research surveies conducted between 1950 and 1985, affecting category sizes greater than five pupils. Studies were aggregated within bunchs stand foring of import factors act uponing category size determinations: capable affairs, class degrees, pupil profiles, instructional patterns, and pupil behaviours. The impact of category size on pupil accomplishment â€Å" varies by class degree, student features, capable countries, learning methods, and other learning intercessions. † ( Robinson, 1990, p. 90 ) Robinson and Wittebols meta-analysis unluckily does non supply any consequence sizes but simply sort the surveies as to important differences, prefering little category sizes, larger category sizes, or bearing no consequence on academic accomplishment. Robinson conclude that positive consequence of category size are consistent in grade k-3, rebuff in classs 4-8, and unperceivable in grades 9-12. Furthermore, lower SES pupils are found to profit most of smaller category sizes. Again, these decisions do non include consequence sizes. Nevertheless, Robinson ‘s survey clarifies the construct that optimum category size is a absurd inquiry. Smaller category sizes benefit pupils otherwise, harmonizing to their societal contexts, personal background, grade degree, and academic topic. The observation that smaller category size entirely does non interpret into academic accomplishment ties in with the observations of Coleman ( 1966 ) and a latter version of Glass ‘ meta-analyses ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ) , which acknowledges that category size entirely does non hold a causal consequence on pupil accomplishment. Given this context, the focal point must switch from a direct relationship between category size to academic accomplishment to the existent mechanisms that link smaller category size to higher academic accomplishment. This reading of anterior research by Robinson announced a new way that recognized the complexness of the relationship between academic accomplishment and category size. The demand to command potentially confusing variables such as pupil past academic public presentation, already emphasized by Glass, et Al. ( 1982 ) , became cardinal in most post-1980s category size surveies as research workers recognized that surveies carried out on the subject of academic accomplishment and category sizes suffered from hapless sampling, methodological defects, or unequal design of quasi-experiments ( Finn, 2002 ; Slavin, 1989 ) . Research, was called to go more sophisticated, and history for several effects on different groups of pupils ( i.e. accomplishment, ethnicity, English command ) within different contexts ( vitamin E, g, , school scene, category size, instructional methods ) . Meanwhile, it is notable to indicate out that research on category sizes at secondary or post-secondary degrees has been badly limited to this twenty-four hours. Although critics of the Glass and Smith analysis ( 1979 ) , such as Slavin ( 1989 ) , contended defects such as some surveies selected within the meta-analysis were of short continuance ( every bit small as 100 hours of differentiated direction ) , comparing disproportionate sizes ( one-on-one tutoring vs. 25 pupil category ) , or even measure topic of non academic nature ( such as tennis ) , most of these decisions were subsequently sustained by subsequent research on large-scale category size decrease undertakings carried out in the same decennary ( Finn, 1998 ) . In malice of methodological differences, the research synthesis carried out by Glass ( Glass, et al. , 1982 ; Glass & A ; Smith, 1978, 1979 ) , Slavin ( 1984, 1986 ; 1989 ) , and Robinson and Wittebols ( 1986 ) , all conclude that pupils enrolled in categories of less than 20 pupils perform better. Furthermore, smaller category sizes cause a important addition in academic public presentation particularly among the primary class ( K-3 ) . Robinson and Wittebols every bit good as the Smith, at Al. ( 1982 ) announced a new way in the research, bespeaking clearly that cut downing category size entirely would non do a direct addition in student accomplishment unless instructors adopt different schoolroom processs and instructional methods. Robinson besides pointed at the economically deprived pupils as those who were the most likely to profit from smaller categories, The apprehension of chairing factors such as instructor makings and pupil background in the relationship between category size and pupil accomplishment was further enhanced by a national survey conducted by the Policy Information centre ( Wenglinsky, 1997 ) . The survey originated from a school finance attack, trying to associate disbursement of public financess and the open end of schooling: academic accomplishment. Therefore, it is merely by the way that Wenglinsky stumbled on the connexion between category sizes and academic accomplishment. The graduated table of When Money Matters, non unlike the Coleman Report thirty old ages earlier, covered the state, with dramatically different decisions. Using district-level informations from three different databases maintained by the National Center for Educational Statistics, Wenglinsky grouped 10,000 fourth-graders in 203 territories and 10,000 eight-graders in 182 territories harmonizing to socio-economic satus. Figure 1. Wenglinsky ‘s Hypothesized Paths to Achievement The linking of these different databases allowed distinction between types of disbursement in a manner that would hold been impossible at the clip the Coleman Report was produced. Indeed, aggregated disbursement per pupil outgo can non account for the types of outgos incurred, some of which are positively linked to academic accomplishment while some are non. Furthermore, the Coleman Report was unable to see cost of instruction fluctuation across provinces. The National Assessment of Educational Progress database ( which drew the teacher-student ratio ) provided non merely academic achievement information of a countrywide pupil samples, but besides valuable information about the features of school clime. The Common Core of Data database gathered fiscal information at the territory degree ; eventually, the Teacher ‘s Cost Index database besides maintained by the U.S. Department of Education accounted for instructor cost derived functions among provinces. Through a series of multi variate arrested developments, Wenglinsky ‘s concluded that increasing school territory disposal and instructional outgos to increase teacher-student ratios, in bend, raises fourth-grader academic accomplishment in mathematics. Likewise, expenditures besides affect the public presentation of eighth-grade pupils. However, the increased teacher-student ratio is believed to diminish behavioural jobs among pupils and put a positive tone to school environment. These two variables are positively linked to an addition in academic accomplishment at that class degrees. Interestingly, passing on installations, school-level disposal, and expenditures to enroll extremely educated instructors are non found to be straight associated to academic accomplishment. And Wenglinsky to reason â€Å" Because the [ old ] surveies did non stipulate steps of school environment, the consequence of school disbursement on accomplishment as mediated by environment remains uncontrived. † ( Wenglinsky , 1997, p. 21 ) In the middle/junior high classs, academic accomplishment seems mediated by an increased in societal coherence created by smaller category. Again, this decision points at mediation between category size and academic accomplishment. Constructing a 2 by 2 factorial matrix uniting territory with above- and below-average socio-economic position ( SES ) and territories with above- and below-average instructor cost, Wenglinsky concludes that the largest additions in accomplishment in mathematics were obtained in territories with below-average pupil SES and above-average instructor cost. Study consequences indicate that higher teacher-student ratios in 4th class are positively associated with higher accomplishment in mathematics. In 8th class, teacher-student ratios is linked to a positive school environment ( low teacher- and student-absenteeism, regard of belongings, low category film editing rate, low tardiness rate, teacher control over instruction/course content ) . Po sitive school content, in bend was positively associated with higher accomplishment in mathematics. Large-scale State Experiments Project Prime Time Piloted foremost in 1981-82 in a limited-size experiment of category size decrease in primary classs K-2 with student-ratios of 14:1, the five-year undertaking initiated by Indiana Governor Lamar Alexander ( future Secretary of Education during the George H. W. Bush presidential term ) started in earnest in 1984-85 with category size decrease of 18:1 in classs K-3.. By 2008-09, project Prime Time was in its 25th twelvemonth of execution ( Indiana Department of Education, 2010 ) . A early execution survey ( McGiverin, Gilman, & A ; Tillitski, 1989 ) investigated the public presentation of 2nd grade pupils at the terminal of two old ages of decreased category size direction ( 19.1:1 ) demonstrated a greater academic accomplishment in reading and math measured by standardised trials than their opposite numbers in big categories averaging 26.4 pupils. Six indiscriminately selected schools and school corporations ( territories ) with pupils that had received intervention were compared to three schools whose pupils were included in control groups. 1,940 Prime Time pupil tonss on standardised trials ( Cognitive Ability Test – Cat, Iowa Test of Basic Skills – ITBS ) in mathematics and reading in 10 surveies were compared to the related public presentation of 2,027 pupils from larger categories. The Fisher reverse chi-square calculation for schools with smaller category sizes with a ratio 19:1 was important ( I†¡2 =190.45, df = 40, P & lt ; .001 ) , and the surveies mean differences between groups divided by the two groups pooled standard divergence were averaged within a meta-analysis to give an consequence size of.34 SD for all subtests ( p. 51 ) . This analysis suggests that Prime Time pupils enrolled in smaller category perform better academically. Yet, interestingly, the Indiana Department of Education provinces on its Prime Time web page ( Indiana Department of Education, 2010 ) that â€Å" Lowering category size, entirely, will non convey approximately better learning and larning. † Although the really rule of category size is non disputed here, quality direction and pupil battle seem to be emphasized. Undertaking STAR From 1985 to 1989, the Student Teacher Achievement Ratio undertaking ( STAR ) , carried out in Tennessee, was the first statewide randomized category size decrease experiment of the sort, affecting 76 schools, 1,200 instructors and 12,000 K-3 pupils over four old ages. Students were indiscriminately assigned to either a little category ( typically 13 to 17 pupils ) , a regular category ( 22 to 26 pupils ) , or a regular category with a full-time instructional adjutant. Teacher assignments were besides randomized. This constellation continued over the four old ages of the experiment and informations were collected from assorted beginnings including instructor interview, pupil public presentation informations, schoolroom observations, and teacher questionnaires. Students were kept in this constellation from kindergarten for a sum of four old ages, until completion of class 3. The undermentioned twelvemonth, all pupils return to life-size categories. In classs K through 3, the pupils en rolled in little categories systematically performed better than their regular category opposite numbers on standardised trials ( Stanford Achievement Test ) . Effect sizes calculated as the mean mark for little category ( S ) minus the mean mark for regular category ( R ) and teacher-aide category ( A ) constellations [ S- ( R+A ) /2 ] expressed in standard divergence unit after four old ages. All pupils benefited from the smaller categories. Data collected in classs K-3 indicate higher academic accomplishment in little category constellations, with attainment steps runing from +.15 to + .25 standard divergence as compared to larger category constellation public presentation. However, consequence sizes of academic accomplishment were typically two to three times larger for minority pupils than for White pupils ( Finn, 1998 ; Finn & A ; Achilles, 1999 ) . Follow-up informations were collected in subsequent old ages, from grade 4 to 8, proposing that accomplishment additions were maintained after intervention ( Finn, Pannozzo, & A ; Achilles, 2003 ) . The design of the survey was strengthened by the within-school execution of the three const ellations ( S, R, and A ) which allowed for better control of potentially confusing variables such as school scene ( urban, suburban, rural ) , the socio-economic position of the pupils, per-pupil outgos, and gender of the pupils. All differences were found to the advantage of the little category size surpassing the other two constellations. Gender and school scenes were non found to do important interaction on academic accomplishment. In contrast, Hanushek ( 1999 ) noted that pupil abrasion, transverse taint of control and experimental groups, non-random assignment of instructors ( administrator choice ) , and possible Hawthorne consequence potentially undermined the experimental sturdiness of STAR. Isolating cohorts of pupils who remained in the plan for four old ages ( 48 % of the preschoolers ab initio enrolled ) , Hanushek calculated the public presentation of both control and experimental groups to be much lower. For case, while third-grade pupils in little groups perform 0.22 z-score above the control group, the spread between experimental and control cohorts after four old ages was merely 0.14. Similarly, in mathematics, the spread between annual samples and 4-year cohort for the same class decreased from 0.18 SD to 0.10 SD. The intervention consequence was mitigated by pupil mobility and perchance pupil SES since pupils with lower SES demonstrated higher mobility. Does this means that category size should non be considered? Probably non, the grounds indicates that category size decrease affects pupils otherwise ( Finn & A ; Achilles, 1999 ) . Answering to Hanushek ‘s claims of added value and limited persisting effects, research workers ( Finn & A ; Achilles, 1999 ; Nye, Hedges, & A ; Konstantopoulos, 2004 ) pointed out that public policies should aim urban schools with larger poorness pupil populations. In decision, most of the grounds in favour of category size lies in the fact that smaller categories benefit pupils otherwise harmonizing to their fortunes. Based on this grounds, and despite the fact that instruction is non within its competency, the federal authorities ( United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Health Education Labor and Pensions. , 1999 ) actively promoted category size decrease, mentioning STAR has a Prima facie instance in favour of spread outing the little category size construct across the state. Until the terminal of the millenary, the category size argument aggressively divided advocates and oppositions of smaller category sizes as local authoritiess were sing extra outgos with the purpose at cut downing the inequalities that Coleman foremost reported as strongly associated to socio-economic position and races ( 1966 ) . The involvement in category size decrease as a tool to better academic accomplishment culminated in 1998 with the U.S Department of Education and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement commissioned a survey published by Finn ( 1998 ) . This study purported to be an overview of the old two decennaries ( late seventiess to late 1990s ) of research on category size decrease, with the end of supplying grounds to steer and prioritise national educational policies, and clear up inquiries related to academic effects, cost-benefit analysis of little category sizes, deductions for pattern and pupil behaviour. Finn based his statement by including merely robust big graduated table experimental designs, such as STAR. Undertaking Sage At about the same clip, Wisconsin ‘s Student Achievement Guarantee ( SAGE ) was launched as a five-year plan as an intercession aiming SES pupils in primary classs K-3. Initiated in 96-97 school twelvemonth, the plan design included four constituents: ( 1 ) category size decrease to run into a teacher-student ration of 1 to 15 ( including agreements such as two instructors for 30 pupils ) ; ( 2 ) extended school twenty-four hours ; ( 3 ) execution of â€Å" strict † course of study ; and, ( 4 ) staff development combined to a system of professional answerability. 30 schools from 21 school territories run intoing the SES standards of 50 per centum of low SES pupils ( based on free school tiffin engagement ) began the plan. K-1 was targeted the first twelvemonth, and classs two and three were added in subsequent old ages. 14 schools with normal category sizes ( typically 22 to 24 pupils ) in 7 territories take parting in SAGE were deemed comparable based on household incom e, accomplishment in reading, racial make-up, and K-3 registration. These provided for control informations in this quasi-experiment. The purpose of the research workers was to keep schoolroom cohorts integral across the five old ages of the plan. This set up would hold confirmed the determination that lower socioeconomic pupils most benefits from reduced category sizes as compared to other pupils. However, after the first twelvemonth of execution, moving under the force per unit area of parents, consequences within the experimental subgroup were contaminated, demoing no greater additions for pupils with lower SES ( Mosteller, 1995 ) . Anecdotal records by experimental group instructors suggest that pupils demonstrated fewer cases of riotous behaviour, an increased desire to take part, and a more appreciative attitude towards others ( Mosteller, 1995 ) . Teacher farther indicated that possible subject jobs could be handled in a timely mode, and that academic acquisition clip, includ ing reteaching and instructional distinction, could be blended within their lesson bringing. California Class Size Reduction ( CSR ) In 1996, following the successes of Project STAR and SAGE, the California legislative assembly provide schools with over one billion dollars to cut down category size. Unlike these plan, CSR in California was non experimental and affected a astonishing 1.6 million pupils at an jutting cost of 1.5 billion per twelvemonth ( Bohrnstedt & A ; Stecher, 1999 ) , efficaciously cut downing mean student-to-teacher ratios in classs K-3 schoolrooms from 28.6 pupils to no more than 20 pupils per instructor. By 1998-99, school twelvemonth 98.5 % of all eligible Local Education Authorities ( LEA ) had embraced this voluntary plan, serving 92 per centum of K-3 pupils enrolled in California schools ( Bohrnstedt, Stecher, & A ; CSR Research Consortium. , 1999 ) . Some territories, such as Modesto Elementary ( 18,000 ADA ) and other little LEAs did take non to take part as their category sizes were already vibrating around 25 pupils ( Illig, 1997 ) . At the terminal of its first twelvemonth of execution, some 18,400 extra instructors were hired, a figure that would increase a twelvemonth subsequently to 23,500 ( Bohrnstedt & A ; Stecher, 1999 ) . The undermentioned twelvemonth, school twelvemonth 1997-98, the Governor ‘s Budget suggested spread outing CSR to 4th class. The State Legislative Analyst ‘s Office ( Schwartz & A ; Warren, 1997 ) recommended against the enterprise, mentioning several obstructions hindering current and even future attempts of school reform through CSR in California, viz. : a deficit of qualified instructors, and a deficiency of suited installations. The rapid execution across three degrees, from kinder to 3rd class, departed from the theoretical accounts followed in Tennessee ( STAR ) and Wisconsin ( SAGE ) in that California CSR was introduced in three grade degree on the really first twelvemonth of category size decrease, a move that is widely regarded as counterproductive ( Achilles, et al. , 2002 ) . Although the initial per-pupil support of $ 600 was subsequently raised to about $ 800, the CSR plan was badly underfunded from the start as compared to the $ 2,000 per student extra support of undertaking SAGE ( Biddle & A ; Berliner, 2002 ) . California CSR besides presented considerable challenges as compared to STAR. First, whereas Tennessee big categories had been reduced from larger categories of 22-26 pupils down to smaller categories of 13-17, California ‘s overcrowded schoolrooms in the same primary classs averaged 33 pupils prior to CSR. Those pupils were besides much more diverse than their Tennessee opposite nu mbers. Furthermore, unlike California, Tennessee had infinite to suit category retrenchment ( Bohrnstedt, et al. , 1999 ) . For these grounds, CSR in California had unintended effects upon the hapless, the non-English talker, the really pupils it had set up to assist. Overcrowded urban schools providing to take down SES pupils experienced the greatest trouble in pulling qualified instructors and supplying equal installations ( Stecher, Bohrnstedt, Kirst, McRobbie, & A ; Williams, 2001 ) . Case and point: the California Legislative Analyst ‘s Office reported in the first twelvemonth of CSR execution that over 90 per centum of instructors in more flush territory are credential holders versus about 75 per centum in urban, low SES territories ( Schwartz & A ; Warren, 1997 ) . As a consequence, schools serving pupils with minority and low SES profiles were possibly the last 1s to profit from full execution. Contextual Factors Impacting Student Achievement ( TO BE CONTINUED )